Nazi Research Experiments Essays - Medical Ethics, Research Ethics

Nazi Research Experiments ?In the interest of...saving lives, is it acceptable to make use of data collected through mutilation, torture, and death? (Campbell, 16)? That is the question which has been rearing its head in scientific research since the end of World War II. As man has sought to quench his thirst for knowledge, lines of ethicality have been drawn to preserve the integrity of science, and provide a framework from which man can improve upon the quality of human life. In Nazi concentration and death camps, the gruesome sibling of science matured. Nazi scientists, physicians, and scholars tore down the ethical framework of science in order to eliminate the genetically inferior, and ultimately, attempt to forge a ?pure' race of ?super-humans'. Members of the Nazi scientific community were to serve as ?alert biological soldiers? (Crum, 33). These ?soldiers' conducted research on non-consenting camp inmates in order to ?demonstrate a hereditary basis for group differences in behavioral and physical char acteristics? in humans (Caplan, 286). The most well known experiments in this regard were the experiments conducted on twins at Auschwitz. The other goal of the Nazi scientists was to provide human data that could be applied to the war effort. Experimentation of this sort mainly probed the extremes, which the human body could tolerate in a hostile environment. The most famous experiment of this sort was the ?Dachau Hypothermia Study.' The rationale of the experiments was as follows: ?A consequence of air combat and air campaigns was that pilots were shot down and landed in cold water. In addition, the German Navy was losing a large number of personnel in the cold North Sea. There were no data available to document how long the downed pilots could survive in the frigid North Sea. The solution to these questions, as well as others, was considered important by certain groups of Nazi administrators and scientists. From a historical point of view, at that time, the number of papers that had been published that dealt with human response to cold water and/or air was very limited...therefore, the German scientists were seeking answers to ?legitimate scientific goals? (Caplan, 98). The last line, ?...German scientists were seeking answers to ?legitimate scientific goals'?, is the statement which is the prime concern of this paper. In order to accomplish their ?goals,' Nazi scientists conducted human experiments, virtually all of which, ended in the subjects' murder. How can answers to ?legitimate scientific goals' be found in murder? Should these experiments even be considered ?science'? Furthermore, should these experiments be allowed to provide quotable data to the modern scientific community? The debate on whether or not science should allow referencing to Nazi data rages. Objectors to using Nazi data, state that by using the data from the Nazis' human experimentation, researchers are not only endorsing, but also encouraging future unethical research. In addition, objectors maintain that the Nazi research was poorly designed and conducted so haphazardly, that it really doesn't even qualify as ?scientific'. They state, ?scientific results depended upon protocols which were soaked in iniquity. In many experiments, it was ?control subjects', denied treatment, who suffered most and died. ?Sample size' meant truck loads of Jews. ?Significance' was an indication of misery, and ?response rate' a measure of torment? (Dixon, 31). Objectors to the use of Nazi research believe that nothing good will come from this research. They believe that using research gathered through murder endorses the methods used in the experiments. If this statement were to be contested, they would argue that to cite research is to say ?I believe in this work'. To believe in research, one must be inclined to repeat the original work and further investigate the topic. Objectors claim that this condition is never satisfied. They state, ?We do not, to be specific, replicate the Nazi experiments. ?We' do not do it. The Nazis did? (Campbell, 18). Objectors believe that a scientist above all else is a human, thus, he must recognize himself as a moral being. Since humans were murdered in these experiments, the data collected should be considered ?tainted'. No moral being should associate with tainted data. Objectors also believe that the methodology of these experiments cannot be considered ?science'. In regard to the infamous hypothermia experiments at Dachau,

Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone Essays

Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone Essays Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone Paper Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone Paper Introduction3 Results4 Discussion6 Conclusion7 Experimental7 References8 Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone Introduction When hydrogens are present on the ? -carbon of ketones (like the reaction used in this experiment), carbonyl compounds and aldehydes, they turn the compound slightly acidic1. These functional groups are removed by using a basic solution as shown in (i) below1. The product formed with water is stable only due to resonance, but does not form a very stable equilibrium. Enamine reactions are used to avoid many problems usually associated with alkylating or acylating carbonyl compounds when they are reacted with aqueous sodium hydroxide1 as shown in reactions (ii) and (iv)1. The main problem being that the reaction results in a great number of crucial secondary side reactions, such as those in equations (iii), (iv) and (vi), and this in turn results in the main product formed in (i) being only available in small amounts because of the previously mentioned unstable equilibrium, while nucleophile OH- in equation (iii) is much higher1. When the OH- reacts with alkyl halide (iii) or acyl halide (iv), the conjugate base will tend to react with the unreacted carbonyl compound by means of an aldol condensation reaction as shown in equation (vi)1. Results Preparation of the enamine PyrrolidineCyclohexanone Molecular formula: C4H9NMolecular formula: C6H10O Volume: 4. 0 ml+. Volume: 5. 0 ml Density: 0. 87 g cm-3Density: 0. 95 g cm-3 Boiling point: 87? CBoiling point: 156? C Masses were worked out using densities: Mass cyclohexanone = 0. 947g/ml x 5ml = 4. 739g Therefore moles = mass/molar mass = 4. 739g/98. 15g mol-1 = 0. 483 moles Mass pyrrolidine = 0. 866g/mol x 4. 0 ml = 3. 464g Therefore moles = mass/molar mass = 3. 464 / 71. 11g mol-1 Addition of the acetic anhydride EnamineAcetic Anhydride Molecular formula: C10H9N Molecular formula: C4H6O3 ¬ (2) Volume: 4. 5 ml Density: 1. 08 g cm-3 (2) Molecular Weight: 102. 1 g/mol Boiling point: 139. 8? C(2) Moles : 0. 04760 moles Acetic anhydride is the limiting reagent The s toichiometric ratio of acetic anhydride to 2 acetylcyclohexanone is 1:1 Preparation of 2-Acetylcyclohexanone 1-pyrrolidino-1-cyclohexene2-Acetylcyclohexanone Molecular Weight: 151. 25 g mol-1 Molecular Weight: 140. 18 g mol ¬-1 Mass: 0. 14g Moles: 0. 04760 moles The stoichiometric ratio of acetic anhydride to 2 acetylcyclohexanone is 1:1, therefore there is 0. 04760 moles of 2-acetylcyclohexanone. Theoretical mass of 2-acetylcyclohexanone = 0. 04760mol x 140. 18g/mol = 6. 673g Percentage yield = Actual yield/ Theoretical yield x 100 = 0. 14g/6. 673g x 100 = 2. 10% Discussion As previously mentioned, aldehydes and ketones will tend to react with primary amines in order to form an imine, as can be seen in step 2 below. Enamines are very easily alkylated due to them being very nucleophillic1. The first step entails the reaction of pyrrolidine and cyclohexanone with p-Toluenesulfonic acid to form a toluene solution of the enamine as shown below. Step 1: Reaction of pyrrolidine and cyclohexanone with p-Toluenesulfonic acid to form a toluene solution of the enamine The second step involves the reaction of the toluene solution of the enamine with acetic anhydride to form 1-pyrrolidino-1-cyclohexene, which is the intermediate of the reaction. This intermediate is not seen as it cannot be isolated due to it being very unstable. Step 2: Reaction of the enamine with the acetic anhydride to form 1-pyrrolidinocyclohexene (the intermediate) The third and final step is the reaction of the intermediate(1-pyrrolidino-1-cyclohexene) with water in order to form final product 2-acetylcyclohexanone. Step 3: 1-pyrrolidino-1-cyclohexene (the intermediate) reacts with water in order to form 2-acetylcyclohexanone. The product was isolated by means of using a separator funnel. The solution was cooled till it was room temperature and transferred to a seperatory funnel. 10 ml water was also added to the funnel and the contents were mixed thoroughly by inverting the funnel several times and releasing the gas build-up pressure by releasing the valve on the stopcock. The aqueous layer was the bottom layer due to it being higher in density than the organic layer and was disposed of in a beaker. Similarly, the organic layer was rinsed with three portions of hydrochloric acid (3M) and finally rinsed again with water (10 ml). The organic layer was transferred to a clean 250 ml beaker and dried over MgSO4 – MgSO4 was added until it stopped clumping together at the bottom of the beaker in solution. The MgSO4 drying agent was then filtered off by vacuum suction. The melting point range obtained in the experiment was 110-119? C, which is not the same as the theoretical boiling point of 138? C. This could be due to impurities present in the sample, like water, which would lower the boiling point. The % yield was particularly low and could be attributed to insufficient reflux of the enamine solution that was supposed to have een refluxed for a minimum of half an hour, but due to time constraints, was only refluxed for 20 minutes. Another way to make 2-acetylcyclohexanone is by using a suspension of tellurium chloride and chloroform4 Conclusion There are three steps in the mechanism to forming 2-acetylcyclohexanone. These are reacting pyrrolidine and cyclohexanone with p-Toluenesulfonic acid to form a tol uene solution of the enamine, reaction of the enamine with the acetic anhydride to form 1-pyrrolidinocyclohexene, and reacting 1-pyrrolidino-1-cyclohexene (the intermediate) with water in order to form 2-acetylcyclohexanone. The melting point range obtained experimentally was 110-119? C and is very different from the theoretical melting point range due to errors that have occurred during the procedure of the practical and are explained in the discussion above. The particularly low % yield of 2. 10% is due to insufficient reflux time. Experimental Preparation of the toluene solution of the enamine A 100ml round bottomed flask was pre-weighed, after which cyclohexanone (5. 0ml), pyrrolidine (4. 0ml), toluene-4-sulfonic acid (0. 1g) and 40 ml toluene were added to it. boiling chips were also added to the reagent mixture so as to prevent loss of product due to splashing and boiling of the product. The Dean and Stark apparatus was set up individually by each student. The 100 ml round bottomed flask with reagent mixture was then fit to the Dean and Stark apparatus with a reflux condenser fit to the top of the apparatus. The reflux condenser was fit with a calcium chloride drying tube in order to prevent atmosp heric moisture from reacting with the contents of the round bottomed flask, and also to serve as a means to relieve pressure formed during the reaction. A heating mantle was used to heat the round bottomed flask till a vigorous reflux of the toluene, with vapour rising up the condenser was observable. It was observed that the water that formed as a result of the reaction of the toluene reflux collected in the trap portion of the Dean and Stark trap apparatus. Once the solution was boiling, reflux was continued for an hour. During this waiting period, a solution of acetic anhydride (4. 5 ml) in toluene (10 ml) was prepared. Once reflux was complete after one hour, the solution was cooled till it could be handled comfortably and the Dean and Stark apparatus was removed. While waiting for the flask to cool, the distillation setup was prepared by re-positioning the condenser with both a receiver and receiver flask. The now cooled round bottomed flask was fit with a thermometer attached by means of a still head and fit to the distillation setup. The flask was once again heating using a heating mantle to distil pyrrolidine and water that was still present. Distillation was continued until the temperature reached 108-110? C. Thereafter, the round bottomed flask was allowed to cool down to room temperature after removing it from the distillation setup and removing the still head with thermometer. Preparation of the 2-Acetylcyclohexanone The acetic anhydride solution that had been previously prepared was then added to the round bottom flask containing the enamine solution while stirring and was further stirred for 15 minutes. Water (5 ml) and 3 boiling chips was then added to the flask and fit with a reflux condenser. This new reagent mixture containing intermediate product enamine was heated under reflux for a full 30 minutes once the solution came to a boil. This was the stopping point for day 1 of the experiment. The round bottomed flask was labelled and stoppered for continuation of the experiment on the following week. On day 2 of the experiment, the content of the round bottomed flask was transferred to a separating funnel. Water (10 ml) was used to rinse the round bottomed flask and this rinsing was added to the separating funnel. The content of the funnel was mixed well and the gas was released by opening the stopcock. The aqueous layer was the lower layer and was separated from the organic layer, which remained in the funnel. Similarly, the organic layer was rinsed with three portions of hydrochloric acid (3M) and finally rinsed again with water (10 ml). The organic layer was transferred to a clean 250 ml beaker and dried over MgSO4 – MgSO4 was added until it stopped clumping together at the bottom of the beaker in solution. The MgSO4 drying agent was then filtered off by vacuum suction. The vacuum distillation setup was then prepared and the filtered solution was transferred to this setup in order to distil off the toluene at its boiling point of 110? C at 760 mmHg pressure. The remaining residue was put in a very small round bottomed flask. This flask was attached to a short path condenser with 3 anti-bumping granules added to the flask. 3 very small receiver flasks were preweighed before the product was flame distilled. Flame distillation took place under reduced pressure by means of using the bench vacuum. different fractions of product during the distillation were collected in 3 different receiver flasks. The temperature range that each of the fractions were collected at were recorded. The added masses of the product collected in all three flasks were used. References 1. courses. chem. psu. edu/chem36/Chem36H/IndivExpt1/435%20Acetylcyclohexanone. pdf – Accessed 11/08/08 2. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Acetic_anhydride – Accessed 11/08/08 3. P. Y Bruice, Organic Chemistry, 4th Edition, Pearson Education Inc. , 2004, USA pgs 747-753 4. freepatentsonline. com/4355097. html

Research Methods for Business Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Methods for Business - Research Proposal Example This paper is aimed at providing a proposal analysis of the importance of stress management in organisations. In the recent years organisations have provided much importance to the stress management of the employees. Efforts are taken by the employers to reduce the stress from the employees by incurring huge cost in this aspect. Almost every multinational organisation has a dedicated stress management team to provide relief to the workers (Hit, et al, 2006, p.259). The growing importance of the issue makes it an important matter to study in the present business environment. Considering the importance of the stress management, organisations are incurring huge amount of cost towards prevention of the issues. In this context it is important to investigate whether providing importance to this aspect is improving the profitability of the business. It is to be noted that the organisations also provides various financial incentives to the employees in order to improve their efficiency and to make them feel that they are not being over burdened with their work. In this context, the causes of stress developing among the employees are also an important matter of study. The consequence of stress, on the organisation also needs to be highlighted in order to carefully analyze the importance given to stress management. The programs undertaken by organisations in the stress management activities, needs to be investigated to underline the factors which finally help the employees to overcome their stress. The study of stress management will help in providing a clear analysis of the different factors which contributes towards the development of stress among different set of workers. The consequence of such stress on the workers will actually help us to determine how the organisational productivity is being hampered if a large set of workers in an organisation becomes the victim of stress. The study of the stress management

The power of non violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The power of non violence - Essay Example Men are unique beings capable of moral reasoning. Due to this, people should strive to ensure that they use this capability to come up with solutions for problems which might arise. Violence is an extreme form of problem solving. Violence has led to destruction in the world with issues which could be solved in a respectable manner being solved by violent means. People should strive to ensure that violence is not used in any situation. Many people see violence as important in problem solving This is due to the notion that forcing people into compliance is the best and fastest method of getting someone to conform to a certain laws or regulations. Violence is also perceived to be the best way of fighting for a person’s rights. However, recent evidence has shown that non-aggression is the better way of fighting against oppression and for ones rights. These writings have changed my thinking in that it has led to me to believe that violence should not be the solution to solving any problems which may arise. Non-violence is a better means of solving problems that was overlooked by most people. Mahatma Gandhi was able to use nonviolence means to gain independence for the Indian people. Mahatma Gandhi popularised nonviolence as a way of solving problems. These writings show the importance of nonviolence as a way of coming up with solutions o common problems. Nonviolence is a way of fighting oppression which has been in for many years. A person who voluntarily agrees to suffer for a certain belief moves people around him. This leads to a change in heart where people begin to share the beliefs of the sufferer. People may even begin to feel attached to the sufferer Nonviolent means are steady and bound to attract more followers. This is similar to how the blood of the martyrs was the foundation of Christianity. (Richard Gregg, 1960, pg. 28) The writings mourn how people have become inconsiderate of each other. The writings show us that people are willing to live wit h the bad things in the society. This is as long as such negative effects do not touch on the lifestyle of the people. According to Emma Goldman, people are responsible for the problems they encounter. This is as most people are not ready to stand for what they believe is correct. Lack of ideals which guide a certain society leads to be prone to manipulation by external forces. The writers mourn the state with which people live and the neglect governments have on people. The writer shows this through several examples such as the one of the Italian weaver who killed the king. This story shows us of how an Italian weaver decided to go back home and kill the king as a result of the suffering he saw his people undergoing. (Goldman Emma 1917) The writings lament the fact that courts have been used as a tool for violence. When you look at the situation from the defendants view, you find the justice system to be violent. The legal system is designed to instil fear of consequences in the ge neral public. The writer mourns the legal system for being a tool for oppression of people in a given society. The legal system is used to intimidate people into following certain policies at the expense of other better policies. (Cover, 1986) The writers have used parables in their works. The use of parables is seen whereby the writers represent social evils with things which are easily accepted. In his second letter to his German friend, Albert Camus says that night is a time for meditation. By this the writer implies that solutions to problems come when the problem affects you the most. Parables are also used by the writers in showing how the people in the society have become effective in causing pain and suffering to one another. (Camus Albert 1943) These readings enable a person to think of the possibilities of making the world better for future generations that will live here. Fanon shows us that the fate of the world depends on all who live in it and not just leaders of diffe rent people in the soc

Surveying Processes Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Surveying Processes - Assignment Example All the exterior walls are included when the surveyor is taking the foot print. Elevation is another common surveying term which refers to the height which is usually above sea level. This point usually describes the house which is to be constructed and how high is it from sea level. Site plan is a very common surveying term which includes all the dimensions; the site drainage is often the most important point when the site plan is being talked about. Monument refers to marking, a position is marked which is used for future reference Heading usually refers to direction which is magnetic and is determined with the help of a compass Tolerance refers to the precision of a measurement and it is a mathematical term which is very important when it comes to the process of surveying Architecture and trigonometry go hand in hand; it has several major uses when it comes to surveying sites and determining solutions to various arduous problems. The curving surfaces need perfect calculations only then one can build buildings, without the proper use of trigonometry these buildings would just fall after a few days. It is imperative to determine the proper height of a building and that is where trigonometry comes into play, creating dimensional objects also require the much needed assistance of trigonometry. The demarcations of cubicles can only be determined by the proper use of trigonometry, these cubicles are crucial in an office building. It also determines the no of people required to complete a task because it lays out a structure on which the construction workers work upon. Having accurate measurements gives a building its strength and this is unimaginable without the proper use of trigonometric ratios. The following will serve as a classic example to prove the above point: A surveyor who has been asked to lay out a design for a bridge goes and calculates the width of the river over which the bridge is to be constructed, the surveyor has to apply the sine and the cosine ratios to be able to calculate the width and lay out a proper design for the bridge to be constructed only then the workers can start the work. This is why trigonometry is extremely important and all the top constructions engineers are really good at mathematics. Common Surveying Equipment: The following section will comprehensively present the most common surveying equipment. Measuring Wheels: Measuring wheels are very widely used by surveyors to measure distance from one point to another. These measuring wheels become all the more important when the surveyor is in a hurry; they are employed when distance is to be measured in a hurry. These measuring wheels come in different shapes and sizes, the small wheel is employed for indoor measurement, the medium wheel is perhaps the best as it can used both indoor as well as outdoor and lastly there is a large wheel which can be used only for outdoor purposes. Compasses and Clinometers: Slope readings, sight directions and height readings become easier to take with the help of compasses and clinometers. Brush Axes: Brush axes are mainly used to clear the area which is blocking the line-of-sight; it is always good to carry extra axes just in case the surveyor breaks his axes. Automatic Levels: Automatic levels are great tools

Symptoms and Treatment of Parkinsons Disease

Symptoms and Treatment of Parkinsons Disease Parkinson’s disease Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurologic disorder affecting the brain centers that are responsible for control and regulation of movement. It is characterized by bradykinesia (slowness of movement), tremor, and muscle stiffness or rigidity (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). The major lesion appears to result in a loss of pigmented neurons, particularly those in the substantia nigra of the brain. The substantia nigra is a collection of midbrain nuclei that project fibers to the corpus striatum. One of the major neurotransmitters in this area of the brain, and in other parts of the central nervous system, is dopamine, which has an important inhibiting function in the central control of movement (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Although dopamine normally exists in high concentration in certain parts of the brain, in Parkinson’s disease it is depleted in the substania nigra and the corpus striatum. Depletion of dopamine levels in the basal ganglia is associated with bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremors (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Regional cerebral blood flow is reduced in patients with Parkinson’s disease, and there is a high prevalence of dementia. Biochemical and pathologic data suggest that demented patients with Parkinson’s disease may have coexistent Alzheimer’s disease (Connelly Fox, 2012). In the majority of patients, the cause of the disease is unknown. Arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism is seen more frequently in older age groups. It may follow encephalitis, poisoning, or toxicity (manganese, carbon monoxide), or hypoxia, or may be drug induced. The disease most frequently attacks persons in their fifties and sixties and is the second most common neurologic disorder of the elderly (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The clinical manifestations of Parkinson’s disease are impaired movement, muscle rigidity, tremor, muscle weakness, and loss of postural reflexes. Early signs include a stiffening of the extremities and a wax-like rigidity in the performance of all movements. The patient has difficulty in initiating, maintaining, and performing motor activities, and experiences some delay in carrying out normal activity (Kofman). As the disease progresses, the tremor begins, frequently in one hand and arm, then the other, and later in the head, although the tremor may remain unilateral. The tremor is characteristic: it is a slow, turning motion (pronation-supination) of the forearm and the hand, and motion of the thumb against the fingers as if rolling a pill between the fingers. It increases when the patient is concentrating or feels anxious (Connelly Fox, 2012). Other characteristics of the disease affect the face, stature, and gait. There is loss of normal arm swing. Eventually, the rigid extremities become weaker. Since there is limited movement in the muscles, the face has so little expression that it is said to be masklike (with infrequency of blinking), a feature that can be recognized at a glance (Connelly Fox, 2012). There is a loss of postural reflexes, and the patient stands with head bent forward and walks as if in danger of falling forward. Difficulty in pivoting and loss of balance may lead to frequent falls (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Frequently, these patients show signs of depression, and it has not been established whether the depression is a reaction to the disorder or related to a biochemical abnormality. Mental manifestations may appear in the form of cognitive, perceptual, and memory deficits. A number of psychiatric manifestations (personality changes, psychosis, dementia, confusion) are particularly common among the elderly (Kofman). Complications from immobility (pneumonia, urinary tract infection) and the consequences of falls and accidents are major causes of death (Kofman). Early diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease can be difficult, as the patient can rarely pinpoint when symptoms started. Often someone close to the patient notices a change such as stooped posture, stiff arm, a slight limp, or tremor. Handwriting changes may be an early diagnostic clue. The diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease can usually be made with certainty when there is evidence of tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The results of the patient’s history and neurological examination are carefully evaluated. Without treatment Parkinson’s disease progresses over ten to fifteen years to a rigid, akinetic state in which patients are incapable of caring for themselves (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The availability of effective pharmacological treatment has altered the prognosis of Parkinson’s disease; in most cases, functional mobility can be maintained for many years. Life expectancy of adequately treated patients is increased substantially (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The presence of dysphagia is associated with shorter survival times. Motor impairment of the muscles in the throat impairs swallowing and poses a risk for aspiration pneumonia. Other complications of Parkinson’s disease include sleep disorders, sexual dysfunction, bowel and bladder complications, and sensory problems, such as the loss of smell (Kofman). There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease. Treatment mainly relies on replacing dopamine with focus on controlling symptoms and improving quality of life (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Because Parkinson’s disease symptoms are due to a deficiency of the brain chemical dopamine, the brain drug treatment help increase dopamine levels in the brain. Levodopa, usually in combination with carbidopa, is the standard drug treatment (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). For patients who do not respond to levodopa, dopamine agonists may be prescribed. Physical therapy is an important part of Parkinson’s disease treatment. Rehabilitation can help improve balance, mobility, speech and functional abilities. No treatment method has been proven to change the course of the disease. For early disease, with little or no impairment, drug therapy may not be necessary (Kofman). There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease, but medications, physical therapy, and surgical interventions can help control symptoms and improve the quality of life (Connelly Fox, 2012). The goals of treatment are to relieve disabilities and balance the problems of the disease with the side effects of the medications. A number of issues must be considered in choosing a medication for treatment. These include the effectiveness of the medication, the side effects of the medication, and the loss of effectiveness over time (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Levodopa (L-dopa) has been used for years and is the gold standard for treatment. L-dopa increases brain levels of dopamine. It is probably the most effective drug for controlling symptoms and is used in all phases of the disease. The standard preparations, Sinemet and Atamet, combine levodopa with carbidopa, a drug that slows the breakdown of levodopa. Levodopa is better at improving motor problems than dopamine agonists but increases the risk of involuntary movements. Effectiveness tends to decrease after four to five years of use (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Dopamine agonists’ drugs mimic dopamine to stimulate the dopamine system in the brain. The drugs included are pramipexole (Mirapex), ropinirole (Requip), bromocriptine (Parlodel), and rotigotine (Neupro) (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors may have some mild benefits in initial therapy; they include selegiline (Eldepryl) and rasagiline (Azilect), and they slow the breakdown of dopamine that occurs naturally in the brain and dopamine produced by levodopa (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Entacapone (comtan) is a catechol-o-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibitor that helps to prolong the effects of levodopa by blocking an enzyme that breaks down dopamine (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Medications to treat other symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease include antidepressants. Tricyclic’s, particularly Amitriptyline (Elavil), studies indicate that the use of SSRIs may worsen symptoms. Anti-psychotics include clozapine and quetiapine help with psychotic symptoms seen with Parkinson’s disease (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The cholinesterase inhibitor drugs donepezil (Aricept) and rivastigmine (Exelon) are used to treat Alzheimer’s disease and are sometimes used for Parkinson’s disease. The benefits are small and may not be noticed. Daytime sleepiness and fatigue may be treated with modafinil (Provigil) a drug used to treat narcolepsy or methylphenidate (Ritalin) may be considered for fatigue. Glycopyrrolate, scopolamine, and injections of botulinum toxin may be used to relieve drooling symptoms (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Advanced Parkinson’s disease poses challenges for the patient and caregivers. Eventually, symptoms such as stooped posture, freezing, and speech difficulties may no longer respond to drug therapy. Surgery (deep brain stimulation) may be considered. Patients become increasingly dependent on others for care and require assistance with daily tasks. The goal of treatment for advanced Parkinson’s disease should be on providing safety, comfort, and quality of life (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The toxic effects of Levodopa with carbidopa are considerable. Dyskinesia, the ability to control muscles, can take many forms, most often uncontrolled flailing of the arms and legs or chorea, rapid and repetitive motions that can affect the limbs, face, tongue, mouth, and neck (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Hypotension is a common problem during the first few weeks of therapy. Cardiac arrhythmias and gastrointestinal difficulties are common, with the potential of gastric bleeding. Levodopa can cause disturbances in breathing function, but may benefit patients with upper airway obstructions. Hair loss and mental and psychiatric side effects including confusion, extreme emotional states, especially anxiety, vivid dreams, visual and auditory hallucinations, sleepiness, and effects on learning are other side effects of levodopa (Connelly Fox, 2012). Levodopa causes fewer psychiatric side effects than other drugs including anticholinergics, selegiline, amantadine, and dopamine ago nists. Psychiatric side effects often occur at night, therefore, some doctors recommend reducing the evening dose (Connelly Fox, 2012). Monoamine Oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors block monoamine oxidase B, an enzyme that degrades dopamine. Selegiline was commonly used in early onset disease in combination with L-dopa for maintenance (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Concerns of the significant side effects have been raised. Azilect, a newer MAO-B Inhibitor, is used alone during early stage Parkinson’s disease and in combination with L-dopa for moderate to advanced Parkinson’s disease. Side effects of MAO-B inhibitors include orthostatic hypotension, hypertension if combined with drugs that increase serotonin levels, such as many antidepressants (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). A dangerous increase in blood pressure may occur if patients eat foods rich in the amino acid tyramine, while taking selegiline or rasagiline, and for two weeks after stopping the medications. Patients should avoid foods such as aged cheeses, processed lunch meats, pickled herring, yeast extracts, aged red wine, draft beers, sa uerkraut, and soy sauce (Connelly Fox, 2012). Dopamine agonists stimulate dopamine receptors in the substantia nigra. Dopamine agonists are effective in delaying motor complications during the first years of treatment (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Newer dopamine agonists, Mirapex (pramipexole) and Requip (ropinirol) are the most commonly prescribed. Mirapex appears to work better and have fewer side effects than requip. Side effects include nausea, vomiting, constipation, headache, nasal congestion, nightmares, hallucinations, and psychosis. Bromocriptine is the only ergot dopamine agonist approved for treatment in the US (Connelly Fox, 2012). Apomorphine is a dopamine agonist used as a rescue drug in people having on-off effects severe enough to require going off L-dopa for a few days. Because it causes severe nausea and vomiting, it must be taken with an anti-emetic. Rotigotine (Neupro) is a once daily transdermal patch to treat early and advanced stage Parkinson’s disease (Connelly Fox, 2012). Catechol-O- Methyl Transferase Inhibitors (COMT Inhibitors) increase concentrations of existing dopamine in the brain. Entacapone (Comtan, Stalevo) is the current standard COMT inhibitor. It improves motor fluctuations related to weaning off effects. The side effects include involuntary muscle movement, confusion, hallucinations, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, headache, urinary retention, cramps, diarrhea, less common constipation, susceptibility to respiratory infection, sweating and dry mouth (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). A major concern is reports of death from liver damage in patients taking tolcapone (Tasmar) and is recommended only for patients unable to tolerate other drugs. Entacapone does not appear to have the same effects on the liver and does not require the same monitoring (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Anticholinergic drugs were the first used in the treatment for Parkinson’s disease. They are used only for control of tremors in early stages (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Side effects are dry mouth, nausea, urinary retention, blurred vision, and constipation. They can increase heart rate and constipation. They may cause mental problems including memory loss, confusion, and hallucinations (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Amantadine stimulates the release of dopamine and may be used with early mild symptoms. Side effects include swollen ankles, and mottled skin, visual hallucinations. Overdose can cause serious and life-threatening toxicity (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). References Brunton, L., Chabner, B., Knollman, B. (2011). Goodman Gilmans: The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Connelly, B., Fox, S. (2012, December). Drug treatments for the neuropsychiatric complications of Parkinsons disease. Retrieved from Medscape.com: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticles/777166 Katzung, B., Mastes, S., Trevor, A. (2012). Basic clinical pharmacology (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Kofman, O. (n.d.). Complications of therapy in Parkinsons disease. CKP-MFC, 12, 87-91. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc2153537

The Value and Necessity of Public Relations Essay -- Human Resources

Public Relations are the actions of a corporation, store, government, individual, etc., in promoting goodwill between itself and the public, the community, employees, customers, etc. Things we learned from Public Relations are provides a better understanding of the company, promotes brand image, and it is helps the company keep a good reputation. Public relations provides a better understanding of the company because it provides insight on what the company is up to and how things are running. Customers can always find out if the company is planning to launch a new product or thinking of innovations on already made products. Additionally, customers can find out about events revolving around a certain product. Therefore, the customer can attend the events that are supporting a charity or a product. Likewise, Public Relations promotes brand image by holding events and plastering the brand all over. There are certain events that are supported by one type of candy. Hershey partners with a ctivities and events that in return promote the product throughout the event. Lastly, Public Relations helps the company keep a good reputation. Hershey provides opportunities where customers can come and experience the product before purchasing it. For example, Public Relation has held events in different states to promote different brands. A big campaign that happened last summer was surrounded by S’mores. It was called Say S’mores and it was intended to encourage families to create S’more’ summertime memories. The campaigns consisted of contestants taking pictures of their favorite S’mores moments and posting them to Facebook. There would be three monthly winners and each would receive awards varying from roasting skewers set, picnic blanket and... ...re aware not only in the U.S. but in major countries. The confections industry can be taken to a whole new level because of spreading to different countries companies are than reaching other cultures. There is a whole new world outside of what we are used to. A product that nobody has thought of now could possibly become a top selling product in the future because of the influence given from another part of the world. Works Cited: http://www.pwrnewmedia.com/2011/hershey/smores/index.html http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/reeses-sweetens-ncaa-march-madness-with-perfect-pick-promotion-and-annual-college-all-star-game-142095723.html http://www.alexgpr.com/2011/08/hersheys-pr/ (http://www.thehersheycompany.com/social-responsibility/csr-report.aspx (http://www.hersheystrackandfield.com/about.aspx) (http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-public-relations.htm)

Honesty: Lie and Friendship Relationship

In a friendship relationship honesty is the most important trait one should have. Although many traits such as respectfulness, trustworthiness and caring are also important to have one believes that honesty is the number one trait. Honesty means telling the truth, having good intentions and being sincere. To establish a friendship relationship one should be able to believe in each other. An example of this is believing in each other is when a friend borrows money and they say they will return it the next day. They are giving their word. If they just keep the money and never return it to back then they are considered to be a dishonest person and the friendship can fall apart. Instead they should be honest and tell the truth of why they couldn’t return the money and maybe the friendship could be restored. Having good intentions speaks about having good character. When one has good intentions then one can be believed in. For instance if a friend tells another friend that a particular person has a crush on them, this action may cause resentfulness because they may have a crush on another person. Even though the intentions were good intentions the actions could become disastrous because the relationship will be broken. Another form of honesty is if one goes into class and a cell phone is left behind on a chair; what would one do: A: keep it or B: tell the teacher? On one occasion this was, while entering the classroom one found a cell phone and one gave it to the teacher. By making the right choice one’s peers were able to identify one’s honesty. Setting a good example is the best thing to do. Not everyone is as honest, on one occasion one’s phone was stolen from one’s backpack, one was very unhappy. Due to not having enough money to purchase another cell phone one has had to adjust to life without a cell phone. There are many dishonest people everywhere. One’s belief is that if the item doesn’t belong to one then one must return the item. Being sincere with each other is building a positive relationship. No matter how difficult it is to tell the truth one is better off being sincere than to lie about it. The friendship may be hindered if the truth is not said as it occurs and the friendship may be lost. When one lies about things then one continues to lie very easily to others in fact one can actually think that one is telling the truth. One guesses one can become a compulsive liar. By always practicing telling the truth one will not have those types of problems. In conclusion, the reader may not agree to above essay, yet one believes that honesty is what keeps a friendship relationship in good standards. Being sincere is to tell each other the truth no matter how difficult it may be. By being careful with one’s intentions can prevent hindering the friendship by ensuring one’s actions are the right ones.

The Heart and the Circulatory essays

The Heart and the Circulatory essays The Heart and the Circulatory System Imagine that you are living in the year 1535, and that you don't feel well. You have had some problems with fatigue, feeling a little more tired than usual when you walked to the market and back. You tell this to your physician, and he sends you to another physician down the street, telling you there may be some problem with your circulation. When you get to the new physician, he tells you to take off your shirt and lie down on the bench. After a quick look in your mouth, he says your vital blood is probably O.K. But he's concerned that maybe your nutritive blood is not being made fast enough. Then he starts to feel around on your abdomen. He mentions that your liver is slightly enlarged and suggests that maybe you have not been eating enough green leafy vegetables or protein. Wait a minute! You have come in with problems with your circulation, and this guy is talking about your liver and the type of foods you have been eating! What is going on here? Where did this fellow learn to p ractice medicine anyway? Confusion over the nature of the heart, the blood, and the role of the blood in the body had existed for centuries. Pliny the Elder, a Roman writer who lived from AD 23-79, and author of a 37-volume treatise entitled Natural History, wrote "The arteries have no sensation, for they even are without blood, nor do they all contain the breath of life; and when they are cut only the part of the body concerned is paralyzed...the veins spread underneath the whole skin, finally ending in very thin threads, and they narrow down into such an extremely minute size that the blood cannot pass through them nor can anything else but the moisture passing out from the blood in innumerable small drops which is called sweat." A century later Galen, a Greek physician who lived in the second century AD., spent his lifetime in observation of the human body and its functioning. Galen believed and taught his stud...

Black History Month Creation and Overview

Black History Month Creation and Overview Black History Month is a month set aside to learn, honor, and celebrate the achievements of black men and women throughout history. Since its inception, Black History Month has always been celebrated in February. Find out how Black History Month originated, why February was chosen, and what the annual theme for Black History Month is for this year. Origins of Black History Month The origins of Black History Month can be traced back to a man named Carter G. Woodson (1875–1950). Woodson, the son of former slaves, was an amazing man in his own right. Since his family was too poor to send him to school as a child, he taught himself the basics of a school education. At age 20, Woodson was finally able to attend high school, which he completed in just two years. Woodson then went on to earn a bachelors and masters degree from the University of Chicago. In 1912, Woodson became only the second African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard University (W.E.B. Du Bois was the first). Woodson used his hard-earned education to teach. He taught both in public schools and at Howard University. Three years after earning his doctorate, Woodson made a trip that had a great impact on him. In 1915, he traveled to Chicago to participate in a three-week celebration of the 50th anniversary of the end of slavery. The excitement and enthusiasm generated by the events inspired Woodson to continue the study of black history year-round. Before leaving Chicago, Woodson and four others created the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (ASNLH) on September 9, 1915. The following year, the ASNLH began publication of the Journal of Negro History. Woodson realized that most textbooks at the time ignored the history and achievements of blacks. Thus, in addition to the journal, he wanted to find a way to encourage interest and study of black history. In 1926, Woodson promoted the idea of a Negro History Week, which was to be held during the second week of February. The idea caught on quickly and Negro History Week was soon celebrated around the United States. With a high demand for study materials, the ASNLH began to produce pictures, posters, and lesson plans to help teachers bring Negro History Week into schools. In 1937, the ASNLH also began producing the Negro History Bulletin, which focused on an annual theme for Negro History Week. In 1976, the 50th anniversary of the beginning of Negro History Week and the bicentennial of the United States independence, Black History Week was expanded to Black History Month. Ever since then, Black History Month has been celebrated in February around the country. When Is Black History Month? Woodson chose the second week of February to celebrate Negro History Week because that week included the birthdays of two important men: President Abraham Lincoln (February 12) and Frederick Douglass (February 14). When Negro History Week turned into Black History Month in 1976, the celebrations during the second week of February expanded to the entire month of February. What Is the Theme for This Years Black History Month? Since its inception in 1926, Negro History Week and Black History Month have been given annual themes. The first annual theme was simply, The Negro in History, but since then the themes have grown more specific. Here is a list of the most current and future themes for Black History Month. 2014 - Civil Rights in America2015 - A Century of Black Life, History, and Culture2016 - Hallowed Grounds: Sites of African American Memory2017 - The Crisis in Black Education2018 - African Americans in Times of War2019 - Black Migrations

Rivington Hospital Laundry Department Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rivington Hospital Laundry Department - Essay Example The existing budget is more than enough to demoralize her. This budget may cause some serious changes in the apparent behaviour of the laundry supervisor as she is not happy and satisfied with the way she has been held responsible for every cost of the laundry department. Different kinds of behaviours can be displayed by the laundry supervisor, the details of some of them are provided below: Quality Compromise The biggest change in the behaviour of the laundry supervisor would be shown in terms of the quality that she provides. After this performance report, her aim and objective would be to cut the cost and meet the targets specified in the budgets, and in doing so, if the quality of laundry service is compromised, she would not focus on it too much. After all, the administrators are more concerned with meeting the budgets, in this way the overall quality of the department may likely be hampered by such move of the administrators. Restricting the Activity Level Since the major cause of adverse variances in the existing budget is the increase in the activity level due to which more laundry services were provided and as a result the level of costs also increased in every manner, including the excessive cost of hiring an additional worker, therefore, the laundry supervisor would try to restrict the activity level to the budget level and may not provide the laundry services to the additional activity level so that the budgeted activity level should not be crossed. In this way, the excessive cost can be reduced which occurred as a result on increasing the actual activity level. This move would surely decrease the overall activity level of the hospital but result in meeting the budgeted costs. Falsification and Misrepresentation The laundry supervisor may also use some negative tactics in order to provide a better picture to the administration by reporting the falsified and misrepresented figures of the activities of the laundry department so that budgets can be ful filled accordingly. This step would cause the likelihood of frauds in the hospital. On a concluding note, if the administration is quite keen in getting the budgets fulfilled by the laundry department, it would have to include the laundry supervisor in budget setting activity so that a unanimous budget can be established which would surely be challenging but at the same time achievable to the laundry supervisor. b) Criterion for Variance Investigation The investigation of variance is undoubtedly an important objective of the organization such that the organization is more interested to find out the root cause of such variances. The variances may be either favorable or adverse in nature. The organization should focus on investigating both types of variances because generally the favorable variances are considered as good and they are not investigated but they have serious negative implications behind them. Managers normally try variances to be more favorable because in this way their performance would be marked high and they would be appraised on a better note. But on the other side of the picture, the favorable variances are pulled out deliberately by those managers such as hiring the low-skilled workers or even unskilled workers and purchasing the poor quality raw material etc. In this way, the favorable variances leave negative impacts and harm the overall organizational goals. The overall criteria to examine the variances should be based on the nature and

Personality type description Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personality type description - Essay Example make others feel good about themselves, and get disappointed when I feel I am not liked back as much or experience unkindness or indifference from them. My desire to be liked by others is a human need all people share, and does not to mean that my sense of security relies heavily on their approval because I am a very secure person. I believe people are basically good and expect that kindness comes naturally from them too. I am very adaptable and have the ability to adjust to whoever I am with in order to maintain harmony. I know I have a good sense of judging people and can be influential to them, but I do not control them to acquiesce to my way of thinking and relating. This is one thing that my personality does not share with the traditional ESFJ type. Another thing is being organized. ESFJ’s are known to be sticklers for organization and structure. I am not like that. I am a creative, down-to earth spirit who does not want to be stifled by the usual, known and traditional methods as I just want to spread my wings and fly. Being individuals, we have our own personalities which have components we may share with others or not. I believe there is a prevailing need to reach out to others and somehow connect with them in one way or another. In order to do this, we try to adjust some part of our personality to accommodate someone who may be very different from us in order to maintain harmonious interpersonal communication and relationships. For instance, if the personality of A is extroverted and B is introverted, A should be able to use that engaging personality to draw B out of her shell, while keeping it tamer so that B will not be overwhelmed. On the other hand, B will just have to reach out a little more just so she gets to connect with A as a compromise. My husband’s personality type is ENTJ. Unlike me, he is very organized and finds comfort in structure. He can be very focused on some things, like his career that he has the tendency to tune other